Human Rights in Africa

The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa Wilfred Nderitu1 Abstract This paper seeks to interrogate the rights-based approach to development and poverty reduction as espoused by the instruments and policies of the United Nations, considering Africa as the key beneficiary of the UN Millennium Development Campaign.The author will also enumerate the justifications for considering poverty as a human rights issue under international human rights law, and how this impacts on the advancement of human rights in Africa. Included is an endeavour to locate the direct and indirect contributions made by the different sections of the international community, including the international criminal justice system, to significantly reduce extreme poverty and hunger and, in so doing, preserve human dignity in Africa as envisioned by the international human rights regime.Furthermore, the paper seeks to justify the res ponsibility of the State in poverty alleviation from a juristic perspective, and argues for the domestication of international human rights standards in developing countries as well as the ratification of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court as complementary actions towards improving the state of human rights in Africa. The paper will also analyse human rights gaps, particularly those emerging from the socio-economic fabric of developing countries, such as a lack of fundamental freedoms and impunity.Introduction That poverty is a universal phenomenon and a matter of significant global concern can hardly be disputable. The international community, under the auspices of the United Nations (UN) has itself recognised this and acted upon its responsibility to uphold the principles of human dignity, equality and equity at the global level, by committing to the Millennium Declaration, the targets of which are commonly referred to as the Millennium Development Goals.One of t he most important provisions of the Millennium Declaration is perhaps that of the commitment to development and poverty eradication. By this Declaration, the international community commits to spare no effort in their 1 I wish to express my gratitude to James Gondi for his assistance with some of the background research that went into this paper. 81 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa ursuit of the complete eradication of poverty. The particulars of the international community’s commitment towards poverty eradication include the following:2 To halve by the year 2015, the proportion of the world’s peoples whose incomes are less than one dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger and, by the same date, to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water.The particulars of the poverty scourge are more prevalent in developing countries, particularly Africa, and are characterised by hu nger, no access to safe drinking water, and the inability of the majority of the population to achieve the minimum acceptable standards of living that are required in order to ensure basic human dignity. In the Millennium Declaration, the global human family resolves to –3 [c]reate an environment – at the national and global level alike – which is conducive to development and to the elimination of poverty.It is the position of this paper that creating such an environment requires a multipronged approach to dealing with poverty: an approach which dares to transcend the boundaries of economics and to address wider issues which affect the global environment’s capacity to generate development and, in so doing, reduce poverty and hunger. Any poverty eradication strategy would involve creating income-generation opportunities. The reality, however, is that such opportunities cannot be created in an anarchical or unstable socio-political environment.Hence, there is a need for a multifaceted approach to dealing with poverty which, in addition to addressing the strictly economic issues, also tries to enrich the socio-political fabric of a nation or region in which the war against poverty is being waged. Thus the Millennium Declaration calls upon the international community to –4 [s]pare no effort to promote democracy and strengthen the rule of law, as well as respect for all internationally recognized human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development. 2 3 4 UN General Assembly Resolution 55/2 at para. 9. (ibid. :para. 12). (ibid. :para. 19). 82 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa This averment in the Declaration is not a separate abstract goal, but is a complementary commitment made in full cognisance of the fact that poverty eradication efforts must have a strong socio-political base, characterised by respect for the rule of law, human rights and democracy. Indeed, creating a stable political, legal and economic environment friendly to entrepreneurship and investment is a precursor for effectively fighting poverty.Nobel Economist Amartya Sen5 acknowledges the argument set forth above in Development as freedom:6 Freedom, the ability of a person to make decisions about his or her life, is not only the most efficient means for building a healthy developed society, but also its ultimate goal. When you put assets in the hands of the poor in a politically distorted environment, not much happens. This sums up the nexus which binds the human rights movement and the global effort to fight poverty and, more importantly, offers succinct authentication for considering poverty as a violation of human rights.Defining poverty as a human rights issue Arjun Sengupta7 argues that human rights are legal rights with binding obligations on the duty-bearers, who are primarily the States. This legality of rights and the binding nature of their obligations is the main attraction of c laiming human rights. It underlines the importance of bringing the issue of poverty within the realm of the human rights movement, and defining freedom from hunger and poverty within the framework of human rights norms 5 6 7Amartya Sen is a Professor of Economics at Trinity College in Cambridge, a citizen of India, and winner of the 1998 Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, for his contributions to welfare economics. Sen (1999). Arjun Sengupta is a former Professor at the School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, and currently an Adjunct Professor at the Harvard School of Public Health and Chairman of the Center for Development and Human Rights in New Delhi.He is also the former UN Independent Expert on the Right to Development, and current United Nations Independent Expert on Human Rights and Extreme Poverty. 83 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa and standards. It fol lows that, once the aforementioned are accepted as human rights, then they become legal rights and the State becomes a legal duty-bearer, charged with ensuring that its citizens are free from extreme hunger and poverty as demanded by the Millennium Declaration.Sengupta adds:8 The duty[-]bearers are primarily the states. They are supposed to be accountable for any failures to carry out their obligations and are expected to take remedial actions if their non-compliance with their duties is determined by an appropriate independent mechanism. Hence, the theoretical advantage of placing the global poverty eradication effort under the realm of the international human rights philosophy is clear. It establishes a legal aspect to the fight against poverty and, most importantly, devises a duty-bearer in the form of the State.It is also important for jurists to establish a theoretical basis for defining poverty eradication as a human rights issue. Taking a human rights approach to poverty is a path towards the empowerment of the poor. A background paper published by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) states that the modern-day challenge in the fight against poverty is to establish mechanisms which erode powerlessness and enhance the social capacity of the poor. The OHCHR advances the case for a human rights pproach to poverty reduction as follows:9 When human rights are introduced in policy[-]making, the rationale of poverty reduction no longer derives only from the fact that the poor have needs but is based on the rights of poor peoples’ entitlements that give rise to obligations on the part of others that are enshrined in law. The OHCHR furthers the juristic approach to the eradication of poverty from a practical angle exemplified by empowerment. The argument is that defining poverty in a human rights context not only gives it a legal status and legal rights which can be claimed with respect to poverty, but also serves to empower the po or.Just as civil and political rights have, with the aid of the civil rights movement, empowered minorities and disadvantaged groups in the past, the components of a human rights normative framework can contribute to the empowerment of the poor in Africa. 8 9 Sengupta [Forthcoming]. OHCHR (2002). 84 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa The following is an account of the ‘evidence’ – first in political theory, then by international human rights law – that serves to advance our proposition that the issue of poverty can be defined as a human rights issue.By extension, failure by the State to intervene in curbing poverty becomes a violation of human rights. The medium which brings the aspects of poverty eradication and human rights together is the inherent dignity of humankind, which the State has a duty to protect as established by early political theorists. The protection of the inherent dignity of humankind is also entrenched in modern international human rights law. Social and political theory Jurists come across various political and social theories in search of jurisprudential concepts that form a good proportion of the basis for legal learning.In Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes10 advances the theory of the social contract. This is the contract between the citizen and the State, i. e. the body politic, in which the people advance from an anarchical ‘state of nature’ by handing over their instincts of self-preservation and, as such, mutually destructive powers to a central authority (the Leviathan) to enable the central authority to exercise the collective power for the benefit of the whole populace.Liberal analysis of the social contract theory stipulates that it is from this contract between man and State, that the latter derives its legitimacy. In return, the populace is entitled to certain fundamental rights and freedoms. Like any contract, the social contract entails both rights and duties for both parties. As such, citizens have duties to fulfil as subjects, and have natural rights they should enjoy as human beings. Hence, the very legitimacy of the State is partially based on the ability of the citizens to enjoy certain basic rights.It is the proposition of this paper that no right could be more fundamental, basic or natural than the right to basic human dignity: a right recognised by the social contract, and which forms the basic ethos of the human rights philosophy. Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are the best-known proponents of this immensely influential theory, which has been one of the most dominant within the moral and political ambit. Rousseau, an influential 18th-Century 10 Hobbes (1998/1651). 85 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa olitical theorist, elaborates on the social contract (also referred to as the social compact) as follows:11 The social compact sets up among the citizens an equality of such a kind, that they all bind themselves to observe the same conditions and should therefore all enjoy the same rights. Thus from the nature of the compact, every act of Sovereignty, i. e. , every authentic act of the general will, binds or favours all the citizens equally; so that the sovereign recognizes only the body of the nation, and draws no distinctions between those of whom it is made up.It is legitimate, because based on the social contract, and equitable, because common to all; useful because it can have no other object other than the general good, and stable because it is guaranteed by the public force and the supreme power. To retain its legitimacy, the sovereign must meet its obligations to the citizen, which include ensuring that the citizen is entitled to his or her fundamental rights. This includes the right to minimum standards of human dignity – which may, from one perspective, be interpreted as the right to be free from poverty and hunger.This is because poverty and hunger den y the citizen the ability to live within minimum acceptable standards of human dignity. This brings out the equality dimension of liberal political theory. In reality, true equality is difficult to achieve, but the argument is that there should be a certain basic minimum standard available to all citizens to ensure that their lives are commensurate with the basic acceptable standards of human dignity. It follows that the right to basic human dignity entails the right to be free from poverty and hunger.International human rights law As members of the international community that recognise human rights and ratify treaties and covenants, all States and institutions take on the obligation of ensuring these rights. Poverty has always been considered as a degradation of human dignity. Indeed, poor people lack the freedom to lead a life with dignity. International human rights law preserves and protects the inherent dignity of the human being and the states parties to international human r ights treaties, particularly the Universal 11Boyd (1963). 86 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),12 are obligated to preserve and protect the inherent dignity of their citizens. By logical abstraction, states parties to international human rights instruments such as the UDHR are obliged to take active measures to deal with all things which violate the inherent dignity of their citizens. Poverty and its consequences are, from a juristic perspective, some of the greatest hindrances to human dignity.An analysis of the provisions of international human rights instruments which emanate from the forum of the UN reveals the express protection of human dignity and the protection of human beings from the derogatory conditions that are synonymous with poverty. The following sample of international human rights instruments portrays this position. The UDHR, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the C onvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) will be applied below to expound the international legal basis under which poverty can be viewed as a violation of human rights.The Preamble to the UDHR is unequivocal about the need to preserve human dignity:13 The recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. This is the root of the protection of inherent human dignity in international law as well as of the argument set forth herein that poverty is a violation of human rights because it deprives people of the capacity to live within the minimum acceptable standards of human dignity.Article 22 of the UDHR stipulates the following:14 Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. 12 13 14 Universal Declaration of Human Rights; adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly Resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948. (ibid. ). (ibid. ). 87 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in AfricaThis provision fully portrays the aspect of multiple responsibility and approaches to ensuring human dignity by setting out certain minimum rights requiring pursuit through the concerted efforts of a wide spectrum of actors at national and international level. By preserving the right to social security, protecting economic, social and cultural rights – including the free development of the individual – and placing the onus for the fulfilment of these rights at the at both the national and international level, this provision of the UDHR cements the value of ensuring certain minimum tandards of living for citiz ens by way of the use of State resources as a precursor to preserving human dignity. When poverty prevails, these minimum standards are out of reach. Therefore, any poverty alleviation effort needs to consider ensuring these basic rights as a cornerstone of its strategy. Similarly, Articles 23, 25 and 26 of the UDHR address issues related to basic minimum living standards aimed at preserving human dignity, and similarly crucial to poverty eradication.In summary, the aforesaid articles of the UDHR demand that everyone has the following rights: †¢ Work †¢ A standard of living adequate for his health and well-being and that of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care, and the necessary social services, and †¢ Education. In similar fashion, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) contains provisions which aim to preserve basic rights related to living standards.Article 11(2) of the ICESCR states the following:15 Th e States Parties to the present Covenant, recognizing the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger, shall take, individually and through international cooperation, the measures, including specific programmes, which are needed: (a) To improve methods of production, conservation and distribution of food by making full use of technical and scientific knowledge, by disseminating knowledge of the principles of nutrition and by developing or reforming agrarian systems in such a way as to achieve the most efficient development and utilization of natural resources; 15Ghandhi (2002). 88 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa (b) Taking into account the problems of both food-importing and food-exporting countries, to ensure an equitable distribution of world food supplies in relation to need. This goes to the heart of the juristic argument that poverty is a human rights issue, and that creating stable political and socio-economic structures in which respe ct for human rights related to ensuring minimum standards of human dignity are observed is a precursor to any credible poverty eradication strategy.Furthermore, Articles 6, 7, 9, 12 and 13 of the ICESCR seek to preserve the following: †¢ The right to work and to enjoy just and favourable conditions at work, which ensure fair wages and equal remuneration for work of equal value. †¢ The right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and †¢ The right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.Article 14(2) of CEDAW states the following:16 States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular, shall ensure to such women the right: (a) To participate in the elaboration and implement ation of development planning at all levels; (b) To have access to adequate health care facilities, including information, counseling and services in family planning; (c) To benefit directly from social security programmes; (d) To obtain all types of training and education, formal and non-formal, including that relating to functional literacy, as well as, inter alia, the benefit of all community and extension services, in order to increase their technical proficiency; (e) To organize self-help groups and co-operatives in order to obtain equal access to economic opportunities through employment; (f) To participate in all community activities; (g) To have access to agricultural credit and loans, marketing facilities, appropriate technology and equal treatment in land and agrarian reform as well as in land resettlement schemes; (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications. 16 (ibid. ). 89The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa The relationship between the rights of women and development vis-a-vis poverty eradication is well established. In developing countries, the burden of direct provision for the family in terms of basic necessities is predominantly carried by women. It is they that till the soil. Thus, the empowerment of women serves as a useful avenue to the achievement of poverty eradication goals and objectives. Hence, it is important that women are not denied a suitable environment for the creation of opportunities for the generation of income. This means that women in developing countries should have similar access to capital as their male counterparts.This includes access to loans, membership of cooperatives, and equal treatment in land matters among other rights, as stipulated in CEDAW. To improve the position of women with respect to access to capital, the support for women’s inheritance rights should be strengthened. As such, human rights non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in the developing world that promulgate women’s inheritance rights should be applauded and given additional support by the international community. The argument here is that inherited property, such as land, serves as an asset that can be used to obtain investment capital and generate income and, in so doing, contribute to the eradication of poverty.Furthermore, particular attention should be directed at the education of women as a means of raising their living standards, in conformity with minimum acceptable standards inspired by the inherent dignity of man – which the international community seeks to preserve and protect. Preservation of the above rights under the various international instruments ensures minimum standards of living commensurate with human dignity. Hence, the fulfilment of these rights by States and the participation of the international community are an invaluable contribution to efforts a imed at eradicating extreme poverty and hunger as per the Millennium Declaration. The People’s Decade for Human Rights Education (PDHRE)17 asserts that the human right to live in dignity is a fundamental right and, more importantly, 17Founded in 1988, PDHRE International is a non-profit, international service organisation that works directly and indirectly with its network of affiliates – primarily women’s and social justice organisations – to develop and advance pedagogies for human rights education relevant to people’s daily lives in the context of their struggles for social and economic justice and democracy. PDHRE’s members include experienced educators, human rights experts, UN officials, and world-renowned advocates and activists who collaborate to 90 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa is essential to the realisation of all other human rights.The PDHRE specifies the particular rights that constitute the ov erall right to live in dignity. These include – †¢ the right to be free from hunger †¢ the right to live in adequate housing †¢ the right to safe drinking water, and †¢ the right to a healthy and safe environment. These rights are not static and inelastic: they are fluid, interconnected, and interdependent. Synergy between the efforts of different international institutions and other actors in the fight against poverty Women, conflict and poverty The Millennium Declaration resolves as follows:18 To promote gender equality and the empowerment of women as effective ways to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate development that is truly sustainable.The focus on gender in the poverty eradication effort is significant. Modern thinking demands improvement of gender equality as a means of reinforcing the development agenda. Women who have low levels of education and training, poor health and nutritional status, and limited access to resources have t he 18 conceive, initiate, facilitate, and service projects on education in human rights for social and economic transformation. The organisation is dedicated to publishing and disseminating demand-driven human rights training manuals and other teaching materials, and otherwise servicing grass-roots and community groups engaged in a creative, contextualised process of human rights learning, reflection, and action.The PDHRE views human rights as a value system capable of strengthening democratic communities and nations through its emphasis on accountability, reciprocity, and people’s equal and informed participation in the decisions that affect their lives. The PDHRE was pivotal in lobbying the UN to found a Decade for Human Rights Education, and in drafting and lobbying for various resolutions by the World Conference on Human Rights, the UN General Assembly, the UN Human Rights Commission, the UN Treaty Bodies, and the Fourth World Conference on Women. UN General Assembly Reso lution 55/2 at para. 20. 91 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa ffect of reducing the quality of life of the entire population. This is because women are the driving force behind the family – the basic unit of the community. Discrimination against women then impairs other elements of development. Different components of the human rights normative framework can contribute to the empowerment of the poor and provide useful poverty alleviation input. Women’s rights are one such component. The empowerment of women is central to combating all manner of international scourges and the pursuit of developmental goals worldwide. The participation of women in mainstream development activity and poverty reduction strategies is essential.For this to take place, all factors which tend to discriminate against the participation of women in income-generating opportunities and other poverty reduction strategies need to be abolished. In cases of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity, over which the International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction, women and children are the primary victims of inhumane and cruel acts, which are inextricably connected to armed conflict. Women are captured, raped and tortured. In recognition of this, the Rome Statute includes such acts of cruelty against women in defining war crime and crime against humanity. In seeking to combat impunity, the Rome Statute seeks accountability to women for gender-specific offences that are expressly defined in it.In the past, treaties have failed to address crimes against women with the requisite specificity:19 Treaties have been drafted outlawing, in excruciating detail, everything from particular kinds of bullets to the destruction of historical buildings, while maintaining enormous silence or providing only vague provisions on crimes against women. Provisions are needed in international humanitarian law that take women’s experiences of sexual violenc e as a starting point rather than just a by-product of war. The experiences of the ad hoc tribunals for Rwanda and Yugoslavia have contributed greatly to the growing recognition for and action against crimes committed against women in armed conflict. This journey has culminated in the express definition of crimes of sexual violence being included in the Rome Statute. In a United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) publication 19 Askin (1997). 92 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa ntitled Women, war and peace, Elizabeth Rehn and Ellen Sirleaf capture the recent history of mainstreaming crimes against women into international law:20 The campaign to end violence against women took root and gained momentum throughout the 1990’s on the agendas of the UN World Conferences, from Vienna in 1993 to Cairo in 1994 to Beijing in 1995, where the principles for codifying international law on violence against women began to be recognized. Those principl es were later tested in landmark decisions by the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda and ultimately informed the definition of crimes of sexual violence included in the Rome Statute of the ICC. The continued progress of bringing gender violence issues to the fore of international law now lies partly with the ICC. It is our hope that the gains already made will be tested and strengthened further in proceedings before the Court.Justice Theodore Morton of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) echoed these sentiments: 21 The crimes recognized by the ICC Statute, including the gender-specific offences, may well take on a life of their own as an authoritative and largely customary statement of international humanitarian and criminal law and become a model for national laws to be enforced under the principle of universality of jurisdiction. In addition, post-conflict jurisdictions are normally devastated and the remaining po pulations stay destitute as a result of the destruction of assets and economic endeavour. Yet again, those who suffer the most are women, as they bear the onus of rebuilding their family structures. This is part of the ethos behind the establishment of the ICC’s Trust Fund for victims of these atrocities, since it recognises the poverty scourge that is characteristic of post-conflict jurisdictions.Thus, in addition to seeking justice for the victims of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity (for which women suffer the most), the ICC recognises the poverty dimension. It is hoped that proceeds from the Trust Fund will help victims, particularly women, to have a fresh start to their lives by creating income opportunities which help to alleviate poverty. Traditionally, reparations for violations of international humanitarian law are the subject of States, and are paid to States rather than to the individual. Now, however, important developments are taking place in this respect. The OHCHR 20 21 Rehn & Sirleaf (2002). (ibid. ). 93 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa as appointed a Special Rapporteur on the right to reparations, and principles relevant to reparative remedies have been drafted by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 22 In fact, the Draft basic principles and guidelines on the right to a remedy and reparation for victims of gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law, if adopted as they are, will require the State to –23 [p]rovide reparation to victims for acts or omissions which can be attributed to the State and constitute gross violations of international human rights law or serious violations of international humanitarian law.In cases where a person, a legal person, or other entity is found liable for reparation to a victim, such party should provide reparation to the victim or compensate the State if the State has a lready provided reparation to the victim. Also interesting to note in the above respect is that the Preamble to the Draft basic principles refers to a right to remedy for victims of violations of international human rights found in regional conventions, particularly the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights at Article 7, among other regional human rights instruments. 24 Article 75 of the Rome Statute of the ICC extends reparation rights to individual victims. Article 75, titled Reparations to victims, reads as follows: 1. The Court shall establish principles relating to reparations to, or in respect of, victims, including restitution, compensation and rehabilitation.On this basis, in its decision the Court may, either upon request or on its own motion in exceptional circumstances, determine the scope and extent of any damage, loss and injury to, or in respect of, victims and will state the principles on which it is acting. The Court may make an order directly against a convicted person specifying appropriate reparations to, or in respect of, victims, including restitution, compensation and rehabilitation. Where appropriate, the Court may order that the award for reparations be made through the Trust Fund provided for in article 79. 3. Before making an order under this article, the Court may invite and shall take account of representations from or on behalf of the convicted person, victims, other interested persons or interested States. 2. 22 23 24 (ibid. ). Van Boven (2004). (ibid. ). 94 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa 4.In exercising its power under this article, the Court may, after a person is convicted of a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court, determine whether, in order to give effect to an order which it may make under this article, it is necessary to seek measures under article 93, paragraph 1. A State Party shall give effect to a decision under this article as if the provisions of article109 were ap plicable to this article. Nothing in this article shall be interpreted as prejudicing the rights of victims under national or international law. 5. 6. It is hoped that the proceeds from such reparations will go towards rebuilding efforts and, in so doing, inject some finance, however modest, towards reestablishing post-conflict economies.Thus, two dimensions are recognised here by the goals of the ICC and the Trust Fund in relation to poverty alleviation: †¢ The first dimension, as argued above, is that the empowerment of women serves as a useful avenue to the alleviation of poverty because women in the developing world are the driving force of the family, the basic unit of society, and The second dimension is to seek justice for the victims of war crimes – the †¢ most ravaged group being women. Reparations for victims, as envisaged by the Rome Statute, are a key component of this quest for justice. Convergence between international criminal justice and poverty alle viation efforts The legendary philosopher, pacifist, and leader of the people of India, the late Mahatma Gandhi, saw the human being as a limited creature capable of cruelty, narrow-mindedness and violence.Indeed, this character or weakness is observed daily when we see women and children marching in their thousands across national borders trying to escape from violence and genocide. Such are the human weaknesses which make the world susceptible to breeding a culture of impunity. With this in mind, the international criminal justice system seeks justice for the victims of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity, with one of the intended outputs being deterrence against the culture of impunity. The link is clear: impunity leads to armed conflict, which leads to anarchy, which in turn yields poverty. Nevertheless, we realise that this relationship between 95 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa mpunity, conflict and poverty is not absolutely linear , and that each factor contributes to the other in some way. However, the experience of those involved in international criminal justice is that a poverty-stricken environment is always one of the most grievous outcomes of a post-conflict situation. As such, from the lens of transitional justice, dealing with impunity contributes to preventing the exacerbation of poverty brought about by armed conflict. As stated earlier, the fight against poverty is itself a demonstration of respect for the inherent right to human dignity. A world community in which a culture of impunity is allowed to thrive will be characterised by gross contempt for human dignity.In tackling the problem of impunity through ad hoc tribunals, special tribunals and the ICC, the international community is effectively combating one of the triggers of poverty. Thus, the international criminal justice system should be viewed partly as an indirect actor in the effort to eradicate poverty. This would be in keeping with th e collective responsibility with which the entire international community (including all international institutions) is charged by the Millennium Declaration. Furthermore, it is agreed that poverty alleviation requires the creation of incomegenerating opportunities. History teaches us that armed conflict destroys the economic fabric of society and creates anarchy. It is impossible for incomegeneration activities to take place in an armed conflict situation.Having seen that a culture of impunity provides a breeding ground for armed conflict which yields poverty, it is arguable that the international criminal justice system, by deterring impunity, indirectly acts to prevent the destruction of stable socioeconomic environments and, in so doing, helps to prevent the exacerbation of poverty. A further area of convergence and synergy between international criminal justice and the global poverty eradication effort – keeping in mind that international criminal justice mechanisms are arms of the wider system of international law – is revealed by a conceptual analysis of justice in international law on the one hand, and economic and social justice on the other.Any conceptual analysis of justice explores the ideals of equity and fairness. Justice in the international realm comprises a sense of horizontal equity between States, and vertical equity between States and their citizens. This is a conceptual 96 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa analysis of justice as viewed through the lens of international law. The same is expressed by Sengupta:25 International law should concern itself with a just and fair relationship between the States, and the vertical relationship between the States and their citizens should be treated separately, through constitutional reforms within the sovereign states.But when the claims of equality of relationship are advanced in terms of human rights, such as the right to development, vertical relations a lso come within the purview of discussions. If the equality of human rights relationships referred to by Sengupta include freedom from extreme poverty and hunger (and, by extension, the right to development), as we have experienced in our sample analysis of key international human rights instruments, the vertical equity conceptual aspect of justice in international law also encompasses the duty of States to take all necessary measures to free their citizens from hunger and poverty. Thus, in seeking justice from the perspective of international law, States are, by extension, simultaneously obliged to address the economic and social aspects of justice by fighting poverty.This analysis reveals that, although all international actors in the global fight to eradicate poverty may pursue separate avenues and be inspired by various economic, social and political concepts which all contribute greatly to the fight, we are all intrinsically motivated by a desire to achieve justice. The interna tional criminal justice system pursues legal justice for victims of crimes against humanity through international courts, while other international actors (more inclined towards scientific and economic approaches) seek economic and social justice for the world population through the implementation of poverty eradication programmes on the ground.Indeed, this idea of a common intrinsic motivation finds support in the Preamble to the Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), which declares as follows:26 The wide diffusion of culture, and the education of humanity for justice and liberty and peace are indispensable for the dignity of man and constitute a sacred duty which all the nations must fulfil in a spirit of mutual assistance and concern. The vertical equity relationship between States and their citizens, as sought by international human rights law and explored above, is similar to the Hobbesian 25 26 [Forthcoming]. Preamble to the UNESCO Constitution, which came into force on 4 November 1946 after ratification by 20 countries. 97 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa social contract.Hence, the common intrinsic pursuit of justice by various international actors (including the international criminal justice system and the poverty eradication movement) is visible both at the level of international law and within the sphere of political theory. Responsibility of the State in poverty alleviation from a juristic perspective Domestication of international human rights standards A proposed new focus within the human rights framework itself would aid the fight against poverty and, in so doing, cement the human rights approach to poverty eradication. For decades, human rights advocacy has leaned more towards civil and political rights and less towards the sister economic and social rights.This is due partly to the impetus for democratisation and ending discrimination, which were major fea tures of international affairs after World War II. The 21st Century presents the international community with new challenges and new priorities. The human rights movement and the international community as a whole must, in keeping with new priorities espoused by the Millennium Declaration such as the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, apply economic and social rights advocacy towards the reduction of poverty. The OHCHR supports such a renewed approach:27 Recognition of the complementary relationships between civil and political rights on the one hand, and economic, social and cultural rights on the other, can strengthen as well as broaden the scope of poverty eradication strategies.In expounding on the scope of the right to health, the Economic and Social Rights Committee – a body established by the ICESCR to monitor compliance by states parties with its provisions – says that –28 [t]he right includes a wide range of socio-economic factors that promote c onditions in which people can lead a healthy life, and extends to underlying determinants of health, such as food and nutrition, housing, access to safe and potable water and adequate sanitation, safe and healthy working conditions, and a healthy environment. 27 28 OHCHR (2002). (ibid. ). 98 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa These underlying determinants go to the heart of the most crucial poverty-related problems, and would constitute part of an effective human rights approach to poverty eradication as well as support the arguments in favour of defining poverty as a violation of human rights.Returning to the obligation of States to their citizens under international law and backed by political theory, the ICESCR demands that states parties take steps, utilising their maximum available resources, to progressively achieve the realisation of the rights contained in the Covenant by, among other initiatives, adopting appropriate legislative measures to thi s end. The duty to take steps constitutes an immediate obligation. The aspect of duties and obligations (to be performed by the State for the benefit of the citizen) attached to economic and social rights, which include factors central to poverty eradication such as the provision of food and clean water, provide a legalistic colour to the provision of basic human needs and, in so doing, support the juristic view of poverty as a violation of human rights.Overall, the domestication of international human rights standards – civil and political, and economic, social and cultural – in the national legal systems of developing countries would create a suitable foundation for the generation of income opportunities and contribute to the alleviation of poverty, while reinforcing the juristic consideration of poverty as a violation of human rights. Ratification of the Rome Statute and implementation of the necessary national legislation The Millennium Declaration calls upon State s to consider signing and ratifying the Rome Statute as part of their commitment to peace, security and disarmament. Looking at the Millennium Declaration holistically, a perspective is developed which portrays the different development goals and declarations in pursuit of those goals (e. g. peace, security and disarmament; development nd poverty eradication; human rights democracy and good governance) as interlinked and interdependent. Thus, the commitment to the theme of peace and security, for example, is not a commitment to the theme in itself, but a complementary commitment to the wider, more holistic goals of the Millennium Declaration, which includes 99 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa the pursuit and achievement of the other thematic goals such as development and poverty eradication. These portray the challenges facing the international community in the 21st Century in striving to make the world a better place for the entire human family.There fore, just as the commitment to peace, security and disarmament is complementary to the goal of development and poverty eradication, the signing and ratification of the Rome Statute is a correlative and facilitative pathway to the achievement of both poverty eradication and the aforesaid wider objective. More directly, the ratification of the Rome Statute and the implementation of relevant legislation in national legal systems provide a stable platform for transitional justice, and deal a fatal blow to the culture of impunity which is the cause of international armed conflict, characterised by genocidal ambivalence, within the remit of the ICC.To belabour the point, transitional justice in the developing world contributes to peace, stability and the rule of law – which are the ingredients of a suitable income-generation environment that, in turn, is crucial to the eradication of poverty and hunger. The substance of this paper poses certain fundamental questions worth ponderin g. What part can jurists play in the fresh impetus to eradicate poverty, as embodied in the Millennium Declaration? What is the role of the international criminal justice system in these efforts? Just as justice is fundamental to the widening of democratic space, it is equally important to bridging the poverty gap.The international criminal justice system will play its role in contributing to these efforts by adhering to the principles of zero tolerance for impunity and delivering justice to the victims of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. The international criminal justice system recognises that impunity breeds violence, which destroys the environment for income-generation and, thus, exacerbates poverty. This is why the Preamble to the Rome Statute recognises that grave crimes threaten the peace, security and well-being of the world, and is determined to put an end to impunity for the perpetrators of these crimes. The Millennium Declaration further resolves to †“29 29 UN General Assembly Resolution 55/2 at para. 12. 100 The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa c]reate an environment at the national and global levels alike – which is conducive to development and to the elimination of poverty. In so doing, the Declaration recognises the importance of international systems that, through various aspects and initiatives, contribute to dealing with the causes, triggers and aggravators of poverty. International criminal justice mechanisms seek justice and deter impunity – a cause of conflict and, thus, an aggravator of poverty. This recognition, coupled with the plea to ratify the Rome Statute in the Millennium Declaration, inspires an increasing convergence of thought, effort and interaction between the spheres of international criminal justice and economic development. ConclusionPoverty is a violation of human rights because States are obligated, under international human rights law and the social contrac t from which the State derives its legitimacy, to remove the impediments to the enjoyment of resources required to sustain a standard of living commensurate with the minimum acceptable level of human dignity. The consequences of poverty deny the citizen a standard of living commensurate to his or her inherent dignity. Thus, a human rights approach to poverty eradication has a strong foundation both in theoretical dimensions and at a practical level. The OHCHR argues for the active participation of the poor in poverty reduction strategies, in keeping with the right of citizens to participate in decision-making.In arguing for such participation, the OHCHR provides a linkage between poverty reduction and human rights, arguing that the poor –30 [m]ust be free to organize without restriction (right of association), to meet without impediment (right of assembly), and to say what they want without intimidation (freedom of expression); they must know the relevant facts (right to info rmation) and they must enjoy an elementary level of economic security and well-being (right to a reasonable standard of living and associated rights). In so doing, all persons will enjoy the basic rights and freedoms that enable them to participate in the conduct of public affairs and decision-making. This ultimately involves the distribution of resources key to the alleviation of poverty. 30 OHCHR (2002). 101The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa Thus, not only is poverty itself a violation of human rights, but the key to its alleviation lies in the conferment and entrenchment of fundamental rights and freedoms in developing nations. Considering poverty as a violation of human rights is not merely a theoretical endeavour: the output of such consideration addresses the specific issue of the lack of sufficient quantities of basic necessities. Once poverty is well established as a violation of human rights, resultant advocacy will pursue the attainment of bas ic necessities by advocating for the right to food, the right to health, the right to education, and so on.In so doing, the human rights movement will be contributing directly and substantially to the global effort to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, as resolved in the Millennium Declaration. Therefore, through the construction of poverty reduction as a positive human rights obligation, the adoption of a rights-based approach to development and support for international criminal justice, the UN has accelerated efforts to advance human dignity, particularly on the African continent, which is most affected by the scourge of poverty. References Askin, Kelly Dawn. 1997. War crimes against women: Prosecutions in international war crimes tribunals. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. Boyd, W. 1963. The educational theory of Jean Jacques Rousseau. New York: Russell & Russell. Ghandi, PR (Ed. ). 2002.Blackstone’s international human rights documents (Third Edition). 2002). Lond on: Blackstone Press. Hobbes, Thomas. 1998 [1651]. Leviathan. Edited by JCA Gaskin. New York: Oxford University Press. OHCHR/Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2002. â€Å"Human rights, poverty reduction and sustainable development: Health, food and water†. Unpublished paper for the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, September 2002. Rehn, Elizabeth & Ellen Sirleaf. 2002. Women, war and peace: The Independent Experts’ assessment on the impact of armed conflict on women and women’s role in peacemaking. New York: United Nations Development Fund for Women. 102The United Nations and the advancement of human rights in Africa Sen, A. 1999. Development as freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sengupta, A. [Forthcoming]. â€Å"Poverty eradication and human rights†. In Pogge, Thomas (Ed. ) â€Å"Severe poverty as a human rights violation†. New York: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. Van B oven, Theo. 2004. Draft basic principles and guidelines on the right to a remedy and reparation for victims of gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law. Third Consultative Meeting, Geneva 29 September to 1 October 2004. Geneva: Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 103

Arthur Miller’s Treatment of Women Essay

Throughout â€Å"Death of a Salesman†, Arthur Miller presents a very bleak view of women. From the male opinion, to their place in the play, women were subjugated. Some may think this was just a role set out by Arthur Miller for this play. I find this difficult to believe given the ubiquity, leaving me to think that Mr. Miller is an unrelenting misogynist. This is not only demonstrated by the superficial factors such as, dialogue, events, but also the subtle nuances. Factors like setting and relationships. Through this essay I will make clear Arthur Millers true opinion on women evident via events, characters, setting, relationships and dialogue; the much concealed misogyny of Arthur Miller, and Death of a Salesman. The most apparent demonstration of Arthur Millers misogyny was through the dialogue. One of numerous occasions the Loman men objectified women was while Happy and Biff are having a boorish conversation about a past girl they had both slept with, that was my first time I think. Boy, there was a pig! (Death of a Salesman, page 21) Pigs are known as foul and dirty ubiquitously throughout a variety of different cultures and religions. I vehemently cannot see a greater disrespect than associating this animal with a human being. I dont think there could be more a dehumanizing comment. Throughout the novel the Loman men, especially Happy referred to women as creatures. This once again, is utterly disrespectful; it classifies women as subhuman. A common misconception about poor-standing characters in novels is that they dont necessarily represent the authors beliefs. This is something that I couldnt agree with more, but in order for this to happen, you have to demonstrate an opposite; a moral high ground, which Arthur Miller doesnt do whatsoever. Not once does a character stand in opposition nor do they present an alternative to the Loman misogyny. Events throughout the novel stand in no conflict to the soon to be obvious thesis, that Mr. Miller is a misogynist. I think there is no better example of his misogynic behavior than that of the primary character; Willy cheating on his wife Linda with a more appealing woman. But why might Willy seek another woman when he had a loyal wife at home? The only apparent reason is because his respect for women seems to be absolutely foreign. Even when his son Biff catches his father in the act, there is no sorrow for Linda. The  only distress felt is Biff disappointment in his father for having no willpower. One might think that those tears were for Linda, but this is clearly not true. If Biff really cared so deeply for his mother he would have told her about what had happened, something he did not do. This wasnt the only event that demonstrates Millers women hating ways. Early on in the novel Willy states disappointment with Linda over something as simple as purchasing cheese. This clearl y exemplifies a belief that women are incapable of doing anything correctly. Arthur Miller, like everything women related, had a very sour view on relationships. For starters, Happy, Stanley and Biff viewed women as form of entertainment, a game for them to hunt. They saw no emotion, nothing human; all they saw was a trophy. I assume one might say that, that wasnt the role Linda played. Which is true, but I must ask in return, was she free from denigration? Linda was issued just as little respect, apparent or not. For example anytime the conversation involved Linda, she had little importance in it, or was purely ignored. The only time she could get a word in is when she was involved in a one on one conversation; otherwise she was virtually demoted to the status of a doormat. A key factor of Arthur Millers misogyny was established through the settling and the American culture. This play is thought to take place in a morally primitive state in history. This was a very hierarchical time, when blacks didnt have the vote and women were still viewed as less than human. To even expect Arthur Miller to jet set equality would be a ridiculous request. I dont think Arthur Miller was an above and beyond typical misogyny, more complied with the post great depression time. This doesnt make it right it just demonstrates a large precedent that Mr. Miller obviously followed. With this time came a belief to fulfill the American Dream. The three primary components on the American Dream were fame, wealth and women. This isnt to say that there isnt a more politically correct way to get women. At this time women were viewed and thought as something to be swept away. Even to this day there is a certain expectation of male dominances that men comply with and women expect. For e xample, the stigma of a girl asking out a boy on a date. If it wasnt for our past cultures standards Arthur Miller wouldnt  have complied with this misogyny, and nor would the rest of society. Throughout this essay I express a non-obvious thesis that Arthur Miller was a misogynist as demonstrated in his famous play, Death of a Salesman. This sentiment was expressed in virtually every facet of this play; from the palpable dialogue, to the subtle nuances of Willys misogynistic relationship with Linda. The stink of Mr. Millers misogyny is ever prevalent but why? As previously mentioned, I speculate the reason stems from cultures treatment of the women; but if one complies with culture isnt one justified or thought of as righteous? This is a catch twenty-two, righteousness is essentially made up of societal majority, something that Arthur Miller complied with. Unfortunately standards have changed and with that so did what was right. Mr. Miller is by means no demon, just another person demonized by an evolved society.

Cell Membrane Electron Transport Chain Biochemical

Cell Membrane/ Electron Transport Chain / Biochemical Pathway Essay, Research Paper 1. The cell membrane construction is critical to the life of the cell. The cell membrane is shaped as holding a phosphate caput at the really outer surface, and two fatty acid dress suits hanging from it. The membrane is dual, so at the tip of the fatty acid dress suits, there are two more fatty acid dress suits attached to another phosphate caput. This is what it looks like: The ground the cell membrane is shaped like this is chiefly to command the H2O flow in and out of the cell. Water is really of import to the cell: if excessively much H2O enters the cell, the cell will detonate, and if excessively much H2O leaves the cell, the cell will shrink up and decease. This is how the cell membrane controls H2O flow: the phosphate caputs are polar, and somewhat attract H2O. However, the fatty acid dress suits in between are non polar, and repel H2O, so the fatty acid dress suits prevent excessively much H2O from come ining or go forthing the cell. With this tough membrane, there has to be a manner for things to come in the cell. This is where the channel proteins come in. They act as gateways to the cell. There are many ways to come in the cell. Some ways require energy, while others don? T. The ways that require energy are put into a class called active conveyance, while the ways that don? T require energy are put into a class called inactive conveyance. An illustration of active conveyance is the proton pump. The proton pump is an built-in portion of chemiosmosis, and it pumps protons from an country of low concentration to an country of high concentration. This requires energy since things like to travel from an country of high concentration to an country of low concentration. An illustration of inactive conveyance is facilitated diffusion. This is r eally easy since the atom is traveling from an country of high concentration to an country of low concentration and through a channel protein made precisely for its size and s hape. 2. These membranes are really of import to the negatron conveyance concatenation. This is because they house the membrane proteins that make up the negatron conveyance concatenation. The two negatron conveyance ironss are similar in that they both make Adenosine triphosphate by chemiosmosis, and they are different in the fact that they pump protons in different waies: the negatron conveyance concatenation in the thylakoid bed pumps protons in the cell ( from an country of low concentration to an country of high concentration ) so the protons are forced out through the ATP synthetase channel. The negatron conveyance concatenation in the chondriosome membrane pumps protons out of the cell ( from an are of low concentration to an country of high concentration ) and so they are forced into the cell through the ATP synthetase channels. 3. Biochemical pathways play a really of import function in our organic structure. A biochemical tract is fundamentally a group of enzymes that all work on a substrate to turn it into the terminal merchandise. This is how it works: the reactant binds with the first enzyme to go reactant # 2, so reactant 2 binds with enzyme 2 to go reactant 3, and reactant 3 binds with enzyme 3 to go reactant 4, and so on. This goes on until the last reactant binds with the last enzyme organizing the terminal merchandise. When the cell has sufficiency of the terminal merchandise, the manner it shuts the biochemical tract is really interesting. The allosteric site of enzyme # 1 is shaped like the terminal merchandise, and when there is a high concentration of the terminal merchandise, it binds with the allosteric site of enzyme # 1, altering the form of the active site of enzyme # 1. Therefore, reactant # 1 can no longer adhere with enzyme # 1, efficaciously closing down the full procedure. When the ce ll needs more end-product, it removes the end-product from the allosteric site of enzyme # 1, and reactant # 1 can adhere with enzyme # 1 to organize reactant # 2, and so on. Thus, the biochemical tract is back in concern.

Vibrators in American society Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Vibrators in American society - Research Paper Example Terming vibrators as massage devices is commonly regarded as a euphemism for having vibrators for sex toys as it is the most usual word applied by those that are found with the said devices. The above is rampant in American societies that do not condone the use of vibrators for sexual pleasure let alone being in possession of the same for massage purposes, while in highly religious American societies; this is shunned upon and termed as evil. Looking at families, the use of this device is common but usually occurs without other people as the use of vibrators is termed as confidential and not public knowledge, which is the same way in which issues of sex are treated. When children come across these devices they are told that these are massagers and are even shown how they work, but not in a sexual manner. In addition to the use of vibrators as massagers, the American society is quite innovative in that it has found novel ways for their use in massage. This can be seen in the case of vo ice coaches using vibrators to massage the throats of singers in an attempt to release tension in the vocal cords for better voice projection (NewsBite, 2013). As a result, these sex partners or sex toys have more uses than just sexual pleasure despite their procurement from sex shops. Another look at vibrators indicates that these devices may be more popular than marriage in the American society based on different studies conducted on Americans. One such study was conducted by Indiana University, where the prevalence of vibrators is higher than the popularity of men. This is especially so amongst women who were found to prefer the use of this device rather than engaging in actual sexual activities with real life men. The above is especially fascinating considering that the studies show a majority of women in the American society as having used a vibrator at one time or the other in their entire life time (Selim, 2009). Further analysis in marriages indicated that women who were mar ried still used the same devices and a comparison of married women at 51% of the entire American female population against 53% of all women that have used the device either in marriage or not shows the popularity of the vibrator. To eliminate gender bias by looking only at the female population, a look at the male population indicates that a large number of men have also used vibrators. The number ranges anything between 40% to 50% of men aged between 18 and 60 and these are just the ones that have used a vibrator at one time of their lives whether individually or with partners (Selim, 2009). The above is also the case for women who used vibrators as sexual partners, where some used them with partners and other just alone. Vibrators over the years have been deemed as an important part of sexual experience in light of their usage by the American society, especially based on early mechanization and electrification of the device. Analysis on the use of vibrators from the early 1900s is indicative of this fact, where there original use was to treat hysteria and other elusive disorders by physicians in the privacy and convenience of their own clinics (Maines, 2001). It is from this that the mechanical use of vibrators

Tolstoy's Concept of Power and Leadership Research Paper

Tolstoy's Concept of Power and Leadership - Research Paper Example On the other end, leadership is driving unpopular initiatives in a populace. For instance, within an organization, it would require a person to identify a numbers of approaches that would be used for the purposes of making changes. This will depend on many aspects including freedom of the subordinates and the authority that the leader possesses. For instance, an authoritarian approach entails the power of the leader to make decisions on their own and then telling those that they lead instructions on what is to be done. Here, those being led have no chance of deciding on what they should perform. Another approach to the power and leadership issue consultative approach that involves consultation. Here, those in leadership positions consult a few people on some decision and actions that they would be taking. They also inform these people on the changes that would be likely to occur. This enables them to institute the right measures that would benefit a large number of people. In additio n to the two most liked methods above, there is democratic approach where a team of people would be involved in decision making process. In this approach, the leader assists the group in forming structures and encourage those involved taking in decision making process.... At the above mentioned levels, there are various people are who include; managers, chief executive officers, directors and even supervisors. It is likely that such people may acquire their motivation from different aspects. Those aspects may be from within the organization or from outside the organization. The aspects above may be different but would serve the purpose of achieving a common goal.. This research paper looks at primary motivators for leading, correct mind set within the organization and characters of those leading. What motivates leaders? Desire to make differences At times, some of the staff members within the organization may be observant and identify areas of weaknesses. Such weakness may be impacting negatively on their efforts within the organization. This may be from within the organization, those in leadership positions or even those under leaders. It would be time spent on petty issues, meetings and taking too much time to accomplish inadequate results. Other as pects within the organization may include; confusion in carrying out tasks, poor ways of evaluating the executive, committees that achieve remarkably little, poor documentation of records and even poor appraisal and remuneration techniques. In the political arena, it may be poor governance that they would like to change. It may also be the structure of politics that they would want to change, and this will serve as a motivation factor to these people. The above situation may serve to motivate people who are determined to take a step towards leadership in organizations. This is because they feel that their efforts are being wasted by other people within the organization. This would make them initiate changes within the organization. For example, they may

Pros and cons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pros and cons - Essay Example The pros of the chosen plan would be important: a) there are no competitors nearby; the specific coffee bar would be the only serving gourmet coffee in-house; b) since no competitor exists in the area, new customers would be easily attracted while existing customers would be interested in enjoying their coffee while tasting their favorite gourmet food, which would be also offered in the coffee bar along with baked goods and pastries. The cons of opening a coffee bar instead of carrying cookbooks and food magazines in the adjacent space would be the following: the costs for setting up a coffee shop can be high. The second plan could be realized with a quite low investment, just for adding 1-2 bookcases and shelves for putting the books/ magazines involved. The opening of a coffee bar would be the most appropriate use for the particular adjacent space. The average profit of such shop is at least $50,000 (SBDC 2012) which means that the startup costs could be easily covered approximately in 5 years since the business establishment, a fact that would eliminate the cons of the specific plan compared to the second plan

Evaluating an International HRM Strategy Assignment

Evaluating an International HRM Strategy - Assignment Example This paper assesses not only the human resource management of ZARA per se but its HRM in relation to expatriate management if it were to enter into joint venture agreement in New Zealand (the host country). To this end, the paper begins with an analysis of the economic environment in New Zealand and its potential relationship with ZARA’s HRM policies. Keeping in view the ageing population pyramid and low female participation rates in New Zealand, hiring expatriates would be necessary as the joint venture team would be a mix of expatriates and host country employees. During this process, cultural training and supporting policies would be necessary to reduce failure rates of expatriate management. Finally, recommendations are offered towards the end regarding the areas that ZARA would need to focus on with respect to strategic human resource management in New Zealand. ZARA, an iconic global fashion brand, was founded by a businessman Amancio Orgega in 1975 owing to his aim of ex panding his factory’s operations by opening a new outlet in La Coruà ±a (don Quijote, 2013). The company has enjoyed great success since its inception with continuous growth in the fashion line being the epitome of ZARA’s overall business strategy. By 1986, the company enjoyed extensive distribution in Spain with outlets in all major cities, whereas two years later, the company decided to open its doors to the global market including its first destination- Portugal (don Quijote, 2013). ... 2. HRM and the Environment ZARA is considering entering into a joint venture in New Zealand which, currently, represents an untapped market for the company. It is, therefore, important to analyze the economic environment of New Zealand at present. The country’s economy now follows the free market mechanism with little government intervention. Its economy is highly export-driven and very competitive. Keeping this in mind, ZARA’s entry into the region could expose it to intense competition from other foreign firms. With an expected growth rate of 2.5% and 3.4%, the country demonstrates high resilience to the global economic downturn that negatively affected the economies of most of the developed world (IHS Global Insight, 2013). On the flipside, New Zealand’s currency appears undervalued compared to the dollar (IHS Global Insight, 2013). This combined with the potential for the housing market in New Zealand to heat up puts it at the risk of facing recessionary effe ct in near future. Furthermore, the low levels of inflation along with high unemployment levels (50%) (IHS Global Insight, 2013) could mean that the cost of hiring locals for ZARA would be low. Consumer spending is also expected to grow modestly which does not present an overly optimistic picture for ZARA. This is because of the high housing debts compared to slow growth in income. Additionally, government’s intention of reverting to modest surplus in 2015 shall result in reduced spending (IHS Global Insight, 2013). Nevertheless, there appears to be growth in consumer spending with the same increasing by approximately 1.2% by 2015 (IHS Global Insight, 2013). On the whole, the consumption picture appears to be mixed and one may expect fair amount of consumer

Healthcare Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Healthcare Communication - Essay Example Some of them also face a lack of proper attention given by a health care professional as a result they seek some other nursing services at a very low cost.â€Å" According to Chronic Care in America [Institute for Health and Aging, University of California San Francisco for the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation], â€Å"more that one half of the United States has a chronic condition. Out of those, 412 million were limited in daily activities, and 12 million are unable to live independently†. [Strengthforcaring.com. 2006]. It this being the case it appears that the health care industry does not really consider the needed, or they simply function on a profit based level. Most of the reforms brought out in the health care industry prove to be convenient for the health care professionals and service providers rather for those who are in need of a health care service. For example that computerised health care system has brought several innovative trends in providing a health care services. However, It is very useful for the Physicians and health care services to maintain patient details and the treatment undergone by the patients. Immediate access to patient data could maintain the records confidentially and more privacy and security can be expected from computerised health care services. The lack of financial development plays an important role in determining the health care opportunity for an American citizen. The tax system depends more on the individual and consumer items as a result people with a very moderate income and those without that struggle to pay either for health care or for insurance. â€Å"Between 2000 and 2005, 7.2 million Americans lost their health coverage according to the US Census Bureau. Americans typically lose health coverage when they lose their jobs, or get a job with an employer that does not offer coverage,† observes. Favro. [2006]. The health care system seems to have become a profit based one a more

Rulfos Narrative Techniques & Characterizations of Humanity in El Essay

Rulfos Narrative Techniques & Characterizations of Humanity in El Llano de Llamas - Essay Example Rulfo attained most of his acclaim through his 1955 publication of Pedro Pramo. Yet many literary critics have thought that the genius of Rulfo's works are within his short stories, where "the elaboration of a single event of the introspection of a single character allows him to illuminate the meaning, often the utter despair, of a man's life" (Schade, p.ix). Rulfo utilizes secondary characters, often family members, to cause reactions from the protagonists. By this, we access the protagonists' humanity. In 'Macario,' character is accessed through use of time and place: the story and its events are chaotic. Macario is an individual, but impossible to understand for his complexity. His ideas and perceptions are contrasted with their opposites, all two thousand words of this piece's prose run in one single paragraph. It's difficult for the reader to orientate themselves within the text. More importantly, it is impossible to distinguish Macario's perception of the outside world, the frogs, the toads, Grandmother, Felipa, food, starvation, etc. There is no second character's point of view given within 'Macario' to counter the ideas or impressions stated. There's no one else's dialogue. Readers must take the information and the character as he is and interpret Macario's life, time and place as he gives it. I believe this is the basis for Gyurko (1972) to state that "Character is stripped external appearance and splintered into existential shards; plot is inconsequential or nonexistent; action decelerates into stasis. Narrative continuity is fragmented into bits of dialogue and truncated memory" (p.451). Macario's inner dialogue is difficult to follow. The sequences of his thoughts have a semblance of sequence or order, but in final interpretation, they are weird. Rulfo uses this stylistically. Macario's first sequence of inner dialogue opens the first paragraph of the first page of the first short story in 'El llano de llamas.' While Macario is musing over the frogs that he is waiting for, the readers are introduced to the idea of an individual's complexity and peculiarity: Las ranas son verdes de todo a todo, menos en la panza. Los sapos son negros. Tambin los ojos de mi madrina son negros. Las ranas son buenas para hacer de comer con ellas. Los sapos no se comen; pero yo me los he comido tambin, aunque no se coman, y saben igual que las ranas. Felipa es la que dice que es malo comer sapos. Felipa tiene los ojos verdes como los ojos de los gatos. Rulfo paints a portrait of a disjointed mind, incomprehensible to others. 'Macario' is then used as an overlay to the short stories that follow. The subsequent short stories have to do with tension between people, and often both viewpoints are easily perceptible, unlike Macario's inner ranting. Rulfo uses secondary characters as a tool to give readers feedback on the protagonists. Rulfo's protagonists are often extraordinary and peculiar individuals struggling to survive in un-ordinary and harsh circumstances, like Natalia in 'Talpa' and Ignacio in 'No oyes ladrar a los perros.' Such characters might be difficult for the reader to relate to or comprehend. For this, Rulfo utilizes secondary characters, usually family, like Natalia's mother and Ignacio's father, to build humanity and provide an

Trace the events surrounding the Birth of Texas Essay

Trace the events surrounding the Birth of Texas - Essay Example The Mexican War was a large event that lasted from 1846 – 1848. This war was initiated over borders. This war helped determine Texan borders and allowed for Texas to house its current shape and size. Before the Mexican War Texas was Spanish owned and slow to develop. After settlers took over Texas, Texas flourished with natural resources. Since Texas was once owned by the Spanish it is home to many Spanish Americans. When Texas was Spanish owned it quickly became over populated with American settlers. American settlers saw the potential that Texas housed and were eager to develop. This over population of Americans, land disputes and promising future fueled Americans to fight and take over this land from the Spanish. After just a few short years of battle, Texas became known as the Independent Republic of Texas. The independent Republic of Texas lasted for ten years. During these ten years many smaller events took place and are now know as Texan history. This republic lasted from 1836 to 1846. The Texas Revolution is largely responsible for the states independence. The first flag of Texas was the Burnet Flag and was eventually replaced by the current and well known lone star flag. There were many different presidents during this time and a formal congress. After holding its own republic for ten years Texas eventually became known as the 28th state of America. This annexation into the United States took place in 1845. This was a success as the first annexation in 1837 was unsuccessful due to the thought of war. Oil, oil and more oil was largely popular in the early 1900’s. The discovery of the much oil housed by Texas allowed Texas to eventually become a very wealthy state. In 1901, oil was discovered which led to the discovery of much more oil which covered basically the whole entire state of Texas. Texas and its discovery of oil allowed for Texas to grow and become powerful. The use of oil was so powerful in Texas that the state

Implementation and Challenges of Lean Concept in Human resources Essay Example for Free

Implementation and Challenges of Lean Concept in Human resources Essay Going lean is the talk of the season. Almost all the big organizations are adopting lean practices; not only manufacturing but management. In this write-up I am going to discuss how HR as an organization’s function can help in lean transformation. A critically important issue in lean success, just now coming into clear view, is the relationship between the human resources (HR) function and lean transformation. It turns out that the HR function, even at its best, is often considered as only a passive supporter of lean transformation. At its worst, it is said to be a barrier to progress. There are two facets to the relationship between lean and HR. First, it is self-evident that the HR function—just like any other department in a company—needs to apply lean practices and principles toward process improvement in its own work. Second, the HR function needs to actively support and enforce lean transformation throughout the company. The HR function, by virtue of its interactions with virtually every part of a company, is actually in an ideal position to be a powerful ally in lean transformation, IF lean leaders make the effort to enlist its aid. Here we are discussing how HR makes a significant contribution to lean success with active support in several key areas. What is Lean (concept) Lean principles come from the Japanese manufacturing industry. The term was first coined by John Krafcik. From its inception Lean was considered as manufacturing tool but today lean has evolved from just a tool to a philosophy of success. The core idea of Lean philosophy is to maximize customer value while minimizing waste. Simply, lean means creating more value for customers with fewer resources. A lean organization understands customer value and focuses its key processes to continuously increase it. The ultimate goal is to provide perfect value to the customer through a perfect value creation process that has zero waste. To accomplish this, lean thinking changes the focus of management from optimizing separate technologies, assets, and vertical departments to optimizing the flow of products and services through entire value streams that flow horizontally across technologies, assets, and departments to customers. Eliminating waste along entire value streams, instead of at isolated points, creates processes that need less human effort, less space, less capital, and less time to make products and services at far less costs and with much fewer defects, compared with traditional business systems. Companies are able to respond to changing customer desires with high variety, high quality, low cost, and with very fast throughput times. Also, information management becomes much simpler and more accurate. Lean for production and services A popular misconception is that lean is suited only for manufacturing. Not true. Lean applies in every business and every process. It is not a tactic or a cost reduction program, but a way of thinking and acting for an entire organization. Businesses in all industries and services, including healthcare and governments, are using lean principles as the way they think and do. Many organizations choose not to use the word lean, but to label what they do as their own system, such as the Toyota Production System or the Danaher Business System. Why? To drive home the point that lean is not a program or short term cost reduction program, but the way the company operates. The word transformation or lean transformation is often used to characterize a company moving from an old way of thinking to lean thinking. It requires a complete transformation on how a company conducts business. This takes a long-term perspective and perseverance. The term lean was coined to describe Toyotas business during the late 1980s by a research team headed by Jim Womack. Lean Thinking Lean transformations think about three fundamental business issues that should guide the transformation of the entire organization: Purpose: What customer problems will the enterprise solve to achieve its own purpose of prospering? Process: How will the organization assess each major value stream to make sure each step is valuable, capable, available, adequate, flexible, and that all the steps are linked by flow, pull, and leveling? People: How can the organization insure that every important process has someone responsible for continually evaluating that value stream in terms of business purpose and lean process? How can everyone touching the value stream be actively engaged in operating it correctly and continually improving it? Just as a carpenter needs a vision of what to build in order to get the full benefit of a hammer, Lean Thinkers need a vision before picking up lean tools, said Womack. Thinking deeply about purpose, process, people is the key to doing this.

Understanding Leadership Styles Essay Example for Free

Understanding Leadership Styles Essay There are a number of factors that will influence the style of leadership a leader may choose, such as: The working environment, The task or project that is being tackled, The staff themselves and their preferred style of working, along with their personal traits and qualities How do you determine what is an appropriate style? Any leader uses a range of different styles at different times during the course of a single day. Decisions have to be made and it may be appropriate for different styles of leadership at different times, and for different situations during that day. Another factor that has to be considered when choosing a leadership style is that the leadership style at the beginning should be consistent with what people in the organization expect. Transactional leadership This is done by enticing staff with rewards such as bonuses, prizes, something that will be of benefit to the staff member; these are achieved by setting targets. The outcome of this will be that the target is achieved but the morale of the team may be affected with some doing very well and gaining great recognition, others not so well which can demoralise the staff and affect their enthusiasm for future tasks. Transformation leadership This is a beliefs and values type of leading getting the team to believe the vision of the final aim. This is done by talking and listening to the team and being positive and enthusiastic about the aim. One of the benefits of this type of leadership in comparison with Transactional leadership is that no one feels like they are being singled out for under achieving as they are all working together and believe in the leaders vision, this is done by encouraging individuals values and enthusiasm for the task. Authentic Leadership This is a leader who is extremely good at what they do whilst remaining grounded and in touch with their workforce, an assumed leader rather than elected. They can inspire their staff to achieve great things with their passion commitment and drive, whilst still connecting with their team by showing their appreciation and encouragement to team members. Autocratic Leadership Autocratic leaders insist on doing it all themselves. They have all the power, make all the decisions, and dont often tell anyone else about what theyre doing. An autocratic leader often maintains their authority by force, intimidation, threats, reward and punishment, or position. Although they may or may not have a clear vision, and may or may not be steering the organization in the right direction, they are not concerned with whether anyone else agrees with what them or not. One positive with autocratic leadership is that it allows quick decision-making, and eliminates arguments over how and why things get done. On the negative it may reduce the likelihood of getting a range of different ideas from different people, and can make people feel as though they are being treated badly, or as if they dont matter. If, as is often true, the leader is concerned with his own power and status, hell be looking over his shoulder, and moving to squelch any opposition to him or his ideas and decisions. Innovation or the use of others ideas is only permissible if its part of the leaders plan. Effects on the organization. Autocratic leaders often leave fear and mistrust in their wake. Others in the organization tend to copy their protection of their position, and their distrust of others ideas and motives. Often, autocratically -led organizations are not particularly supportive of personal relationships, but much more keyed to chain-of-command. Everyone has her own sphere, and protects it at all costs. Communication tends to go in only one direction up as a result of which rumor can become the standard way of spreading news in the organization. At its best (and there are decent autocratic leaders see the box directly below ), autocratic leadership provides a stable and secure work environment and decisive, effective leadership. All too often, however, it can sacrifice initiative, new ideas, and the individual and group development of staff members for the predictability of a highly structured, hierarchical environment where everyone knows exactly what hes supposed to do, and follows orders without  question. Although the above paints a pretty bleak picture, many autocratic leaders are not hated and feared, but rather esteemed, and even loved. It depends on their own personalities like anyone else, they can be nice people, or highly charismatic, or even willing to listen to and act on others ideas on the organization itself (in the military, most soldiers want someone firmly in charge), on the quality of their decisions, and on the needs of the people they lead. If theyre generally decent and not abusive, make good deci sions for the organization, and fulfil the parent-figure or authority -figure image that most people in the organization are looking for, they can be both effective and well-respected. 2. Managerial. The leader who sees herself as a manager is concerned primarily with the running of the organization. Where its going is not at issue, as long as it gets there in good shape. She may pay attention to relationships with and among staff members, but only in the service of keeping things running smoothly. Depending upon the nature and stability of the organization, her main focus may be on funding, on strengthening the organizations systems and infrastructure (policies, positions, equipment, etc.), or on making sure day-to-day operations go well (including making sure that everyone is doing what hes supposed to). If shes efficient, a managerial leader will generally be on top of whats happening in the organization. Depending on the size of the organization and her management level, shell have control of the budget, know the policies and procedures manual inside out, be aware of whos doing his job efficiently and whos not, and deal with issues quickly and firmly as they co me up. What she wont do is steer the organization. Vision isnt her business; maintaining the organization is. Effects on the organization. In general, a well-managed organization, regardless of its leadership style, is a reasonably pleasant place to work. Staff members don t have to worry about ambiguity, or about whether theyll get paid. As long as oversight is relatively civil no screaming at people, no setting staff members against one another things go along on an even keel. Good managers even try to foster friendly relationships with and among staff, because they make the organization work better. On the other hand, good management without a clear vision creates an organization with no sense of purpose. The organization may simply act to support the status quo, doing what it has always done in order to keep  things running smoothly. That attitude neither fosters passion in staff members, nor takes account of the changing needs (and they do change) of the target population or the community. The organization may do what it does efficiently and wellbut what it does may not be what it should be doing, and it wont be examining that possibility any time soon. Obviously, the leader of any organization as well as any other administrator has to be a manager at least some of the time. Many are in fact excellent managers, and keep the organization running smoothly on a number of levels. The issue here is the style that person adopts as a leader. If she sees management as her primary purpose, shes a managerial leader, and will have a very different slant on leadership than if her style is essentially democratic, for instance. 3. Democratic. A democratic leader understands that there is no organization without its people. He looks at his and others positions in terms of responsibilities rather than status, and often consults in decision-making. While he solicits, values, and takes into account others opinions, however, he sees the ultimate responsibility for decision-making as hi s own. He accepts that authority also means the buck stops with him. Although he sees the organization as a cooperative venture, he knows that he ultimately has to face the consequences of his decisions alone. Democratic leadership invites the participation of staff members and others, not only in decision-making, but in shaping the organizations vision. It allows everyone to express opinions about how things should be done, and where the organization should go. By bringing in everyones ideas, it enriches the organizations possibilities. But it still leaves the final decisions about what to do with those ideas in the hands of a single person. Some models of democratic leadership might put the responsibility in the hands of a small group a management team or executive committee rather than an individual. Effects on the organization. Democratic leadership, with its emphasis on equal status, can encourage friendships and good relationships throughout the organization. (In more hierarchical organizations, clerical staff and administrators are unlikely to socialize, for instance; in a democratically-led organization, such socialization often happens.) It helps people feel valued when their opinions are solicited, and even more so if those opinions are incorporated into a final decision or policy. What a democratic leadership doesnt necessarily do although it can is  establish staff ownership of the organization and its goals. Although everyone may be asked for ideas or opinions, not all of those are used or incorporated in the workings of the organization. If there is no real discussion of ideas, with a resulting general agreement, a sense of ownership is unlikely. Thus, democratic leadership may have some of the drawbacks of autocratic leadership a lack of buy-in without the advantages of quick and clear decision-making that comes with the elimination of consultation. 4. Collaborative. A collaborative leader tries to involve everyone in the organization in leadership. She is truly first among equals, in that she may initiate discussion, pinpoint problems or issues that need to be addressed, and keep track of the organization as a whole, rather than of one particular job. But decisions are made through a collaborative process of discussion, and some form of either majority or consensus agreement. Toward that end, a collaborative leader tries to foster trust and teamwork among the staff as a whole. A collaborative leader has to let go of the need for control or power or status if she is to be effective. Her goal is to foster the collaborative process, and to empower the group whether the staff and others involved in an organization, or the individuals and organizations participating in a community initiative to control the vision and the workings of the organization. She must trust that, if people have all the relevant information, theyll make good decisionsand she must make sure that they have that information, and provide the facilitation that assures those good decisions. Effects on the organization. Collaborative leadership comes as close as possible to ensuring that members of the organization buy into its vision and decisions, since they are directly involved in creating them. It comes closest to the goal of servant leadership explored in the previous section (Please see Chapter 13, Section 2: Servant Leadership: Accepting and Maintaining the Call of Service), and it also comes closest to reflecting the concepts of equality and empowerment included in the philosophy and miss ion of so many grass roots and community-based organizations. It thus removes much of the distrust that often exists between line staff and administrators. David Chrislip and Carl E. Larson, in Collaborative Leadership How Citizens and Civic Leaders Can Make a Difference, equate collaborative leadership not only with servant leadership, but with transformational (see below) and  facilitative leadership as well. They identify four characteristics of the collaborative leader: * Inspiring commitment and action. The collaborative leader helps people develop the vision and passion to start and maintain the work. * Leading as a peer problem solver. The collaborative leader facilitates problem solving by modeling and teaching a process, and by helping others bring their experience and ideas to bear. * Building broad-based involvement. The collaborative leader invites everyone concerned into an inclusive process. * Sustaining hope and participation. Reaching goals may take a long time. The collaborative leader both helps the group set interim goals so it can see progress, and, by example and in other ways, helps to maintain the passion and commitment to keep going when theres no end in sight. Collaborative leaders also generally foster close relationships among staff members, making for more communication and cross-fertilization in their work, and leading to more effective ways to accomplish the organizations goals. On the down side, management can be neglected in favor of building a collaborative organization. Even more to the point, collaborative decision-making can be excruciating. Depending upon the group, ideas can be talked to death, and insignificant disagreements about insignificant areas of policy can take hours to resolve. Collaborative decision-making can be democratic based on a majority vote after discussion or dependent on arriving at consensus, with a range of possibilities in between. Consensus decision-making is particularly difficult, in that it requires everyone to agree before a decision can be made. A single determined individual can derail the process indefinitely. Even at its best, a consensus process can take inordinate amounts of time, and try the patience of all involved. Its not impossible to employ, but it takes real commitment to the ideal of consensus, and enormous patience. In practice, true consensus decision-making is most often used in collective organizations, which are significantly different from collaborative ones, and often involve everyone in leadership. Another way of looking at leadership style A different view, popularized by James MacGregor Burns, contrasts two styles of leadership: transactional and transformational. Transactional leadership, as its name implies, views leadership as based on transactions  between leader and followers. The leader sees human relations as a series of transactions. Thus rewards, punishments, reciprocity, exchanges (economic, emotional, physical) and other such transactions are the basis of leadership. In simplest terms, I lead this organization by paying you and telling you what you need to do; you respond by doing what you need to do efficiently and well, and the organization will prosper. Transformational leadership looks at leadership differently. It sees a true leader as one who can distill the values and hopes and needs of followers into a vision, and then encourage and empower followers to pursue that vision. A transactional leader thinks of improvement or development as doing the same thing better: an organization that reaches more people, a company that makes more money. A transformational leader thinks about changing the world, even if only on a small scale. Combining the two views of leadership style These two ways of looking at leadership style are not mutually exclusive: in fact, its easier to look at leadership in the context of both. Assuming, as almost all leadership theorists do, that transformational is either better than, or a necessary addition to, transactional leadership, what elements go into creating a transformational leader? What styles are transformational leaders likely to employ, and how? Elements of transformational leadership The transformational leader conceives of leadership as helping people to create a common vision and then to pursue that vision until its realized. She elicits that vision from the needs and aspirations of others, gives it form, and sets it up as a goal to strive for. The vision is not hers: it is a shared vision that each person sees as his own. Martin Luther Kings overwhelming I Have A Dream speech derived its power not only from the beauty of his oratory, but from the fact that it crystallized the feelings of all those citizens, of all races, who believed that racism was a great wrong. In that speech, King spoke with the voices of the hundreds of thousands who stood before the Lincoln Memorial, and of millions of others who shared in his vision. That speech remains as the defining moment of the Civil Rights struggle, and defined King who had already proved his mettle in Birmingham and elsewhere as a transformational leader. The conception behind transformational leadership is thu s providing and working toward a  vision, but also has elements of empowerment, of taking care of people, and even of task orientation. The job of the transformational leader is not simply to provide inspiration and then disappear. It is to be there, day after day, convincing people that the vision is reachable, renewing their commitment, priming their enthusiasm. Transformational leaders work harder than anyone else, and, in the words of a spiritual, keep their eyes on the prize. The methods that transformational leaders might use to reach their goals can vary. Theyll virtually always include involving followers in the goal, as well as charisma, which comes, if not from personal characteristics, from the ability to put a mutual vision into words, and to move a group toward the realization of that vision. Transformational leaders may also use sharing power, setting an example, and/or persuasion to help move a group toward its goal. What style does all that imply? The managerial style is perhaps least appropriate to transformational leadership, since it pays no attention to vision. The autocratic pays little attention to the ideas of others, and is not generally congenial to the transformational leader. On the other hand, there was Hitler, who tapped into the deepest emotions of those he led, and voiced them in a frightening but highly effective way. There is no guarantee that a transformational leader will work for the betterment of humanity, although he may c ouch his vision in those terms. The intersection of the transformational and the autocratic is not impossible, but it usually has, at best, mixed results. Fidel Castro initiated and has maintained desperately-needed land, education, health, and other reforms in Cuba, for which he is still revered by much of the islands population. He also eliminated any vestige of political freedom, imprisoned and executed dissenters and political opponents, and was at least partially responsible for destroying much of Cubas economic base in the name of ideological purity. As with the four styles described earlier, there is no guarantee that either a transactional or transformational leader will be an effective one. The democratic and collaborative styles are both better possibilities for transformational leadership. Both allow for input from everyone, and both encourage participation in the realization of long-term goals. It can be difficult for a highly motivated, charismatic leader to operate in the collaborative mode, but it can also be tremendously satisfying. There is an argument to be made  that, because of the high degree of ownership of the vision in a collaboratively-run organization, the collaborative style could be the most successful for transformational leadership. As noted above, David Chrislip and Carl Larson actually see collaborative and transformational leadership as essentially the same.  and of course the leaders qualities and personal traits are a major factor, whether they are confident , inspirational, approachable, committed, knowledgeable, disciplined, open minded, responsible, positive, energising , trustworthy,